Classical Athens: Citizenship

Athenian Citizenship

• qualifications for citizenship
• benefits and rights of citizenship
• responsibilities
• metics — rights and duties
• definition of direct democracy
• the Assembly of citizens — structure, role and purpose
• the Council of 500 — structure, role and purpose
• the archons — role and purpose
• the generals — role and purpose
• ostracism — the purpose and process, strengths and weaknesses
• strengths and weaknesses of Athenian democracy

Ancient Greek Democracy

The word “democracy” is derived from Ancient Greek. It’s a combination of “demos” – people – and “kratos” – power. Literally, then, democracy means power in the hands of the people.

Like the name, the idea itself was also born in Ancient Greece. For around 100 years (~500-400 BCE) democracy flourished in Ancient Athens, however Ancient Athenian democracy was significantly different from most modern versions you will be aware of. Modern British democracy includes elected representatives – known in Britain as Members of Parliament – who vote on a variety of issues on behalf of the people who elected them. It is therefore known as representative democracy. Ancient Athenian democracy, however, cut out the middleman and instead involved the citizens themselves voting on every issue that faced the polis. This was called direct democracy. If this was the system of government used in modern Britain, every Briton would have to vote on every law that was going to be passed, every trade agreement, every allocation of government funds, and so on. Direct democracy has not been adopted by many civilizations since Ancient Athens. Nevertheless, a few examples survive into the modern era, such as the Crow Nation: a Native American tribe in the USA which is ruled by a general council formed from all voting age members. Direct democracy has gained more attention recently as electronic voting makes the concept more practical.

Ancient Greek Democracy: Questions 1 - 2

What was a Citizen?

Not everyone who lived in Athens was a citizen. It is important to understand who counted as an Athenian citizen because only citizens could take part in politics and had power in the legal system. Children were not citizens – citizens had to be at least 18. Foreigners, called metics, were also not citizens. For someone to be considered an Athenian, they had to have two Athenian parents who were married. Unlike modern Britain, there was no structured way for metics to become citizens – there was no naturalisation process, which in Britain is a way for non-Britons to become British citizens. Very occasionally, however, a metic would be granted the status of citizen by the city. Women could never become citizens, no matter how old they became. Finally, slaves were also not allowed to become citizens. This meant that neither group had representation within politics or the legal system.

Women, children, metics and slaves could not become citizens. Taking all of this information, we can see the definition of an Athenian citizen as: a free man over the age of 18, with two married Athenian parents. Once you had met each of these criteria, there were a few things you had to do before being allowed to call yourself a full Athenian citizen and take part in politics and the legal system: Everyone had to spend at least two years serving in the Athenian military before they could become a citizen. They also had to be registered as a citizen in their deme (which could be compared to a local authority in modern Britain) at the age of 18.

What was a Citizen?: Questions 3 - 5

Structure of Democracy - The Assembly

The Assembly, also known as the Ekklesia, was the place where all political decisions were made in Ancient Athens. The Assembly was held a little less than four times an Ancient Greek month (there were 36 days in an Ancient Greek month, and 10 months a year) on the Pnyx, a hill in the middle of Athens. They met at dawn. Emergency meetings could be called if Athens was facing a crisis. Remember, only citizens were allowed to attend the Assembly. At least 6,000 people had to attend the Assembly in order for votes on particularly important issues to be valid. This ensured that Athens wasn’t only being governed by a few people, if only a few people bothered to show up – decisions had to be made by the masses.

The Assembly was a place for debate and discussion. Any man in the Assembly could make a speech, suggest a topic for discussion or disagree with the person who was speaking. The people had to listen to anyone who wanted to speak. Votes were held in the Assembly by a show of hands. Everything that happened in Athens had to have the approval of the Assembly first. For example, the Assembly would make decisions on war, laws and taxation, and would oversee appointment of officials such as magistrates and generals.

Every man in the Assembly could speak, every man had one vote, so every man, in theory at least, was equal. However, it may not be a surprise to learn that it was the man with the best public speaking skills and greatest powers of persuasion who effectively led Athens. For example, Pericles was a prominent and well-known Athenian who persuaded Athens to make various political decisions through his powerful speeches. This led another Athenian called Thucydides to mention that Athens was “in name a democracy but in fact, governed by its first citizen (Pericles)”.

The Assembly: Questions 6 - 8

Structure of Democracy - The Council of 500

The Council of 500, also known as the Boule, was another political body in Ancient Athens. Remember that there were 10 tribes in Athens and each citizen belonged to one of these tribes depending on where they lived. These tribes can therefore be compared to modern British local authorities, such as Midlothian or Edinburgh. 50 men were selected by lot to serve in the Boule from each of these 10 tribes, making 500 altogether. These 500 men served in the Boule for one year, then another lot were chosen. Note that the members of the Council of 500 were chosen at random, not elected by the vote of the people as we would expect from our public officials today. This meant that every citizen of Athens could and at some point in their lives probably would be able to serve in the Boule. This is democratic – every Athenian citizen had a direct role in their government. On the other hand, it also allowed very incompetent people who may not be able to properly do their job to achieve power.

Every Greek month (36 days), the 50 men that came from one of the tribes would serve as the Pyrtaneis, the group that headed the boule. There were only 10 months in an Ancient Greek year, so each tribe’s men could serve in the Pyrtaneis once. Each day, one member of the Prytaneis was chosen by lot to serve as the head of the Pyrtaneis, and would have the most power out of the entire Boule.

Athenian citizens had to be at least 30 to serve in the Boule, and non-citizens could not be selected to serve. Members of the Boule were paid 1 drachma (equivalent to 6 obols) a day, which made up for the loss in income they would face by not farming or having any other livelihood for the year that they served in the Boule. After the year was over, members of the Boule could be scrutinised and held accountable for their actions.

The Boule had a number of roles. They would greet any foreign officials that visited Athens, make sure other officials were behaving correctly, ensure that the will of the Assembly was carried out, deal with emergency situations and generally carry out the day-to-day running of Athens.

The Council of 500: Questions 9 - 12

Structure of Democracy - The Magistrates

There were 9 magistrates, also known as Archons, selected every year in Athens. These Archons served for one year, and were paid 4 obols a day for their efforts. This made up for the loss in income that a citizen would face by taking a year out of their profession to serve as an archon. A citizen of Athens could only serve as an Archon once in their life. Most Archons were chosen randomly by lot.

When necessary, Archons would assist the generals with the carrying out of their duties. They also helped with the organisation of the legal system and most religious festivals, such as the Dionysia.

The Magistrates: Questions 13 - 16

Structure of Democracy - The Generals

Generals, or Strategoi as they were known in Ancient Athens, were in charge of the Athenian military. To be a general, one had to be at least 30 years old. A general was the only official that was elected by the vote of the people rather than by random lottery – the people of each tribe elected one general to represent them every year, meaning there were 10 generals per year in total. The fact that generals were voted in meant that the rich had a major advantage over the poor since they could pay money to improve their campaign and get more votes. They were also usually better educated, so would come across better to the public. This meant the rich were more likely to become generals than the poor, which could be seen as unfair. On the other hand, it was important for the Athenian army to be lead competently and effectively, and a voting system meant the best people for the job were more likely to be elected than if the process was done by lot.

Generals were not paid for their service, meaning it was often only the richest who could afford to participate. Unlike the Archons, generals could be elected as many times as the people wanted them to remain in power. For example, Pericles was elected 15 times in a row. All of this meant that the typical Athenian citizen was unlikely to become a general.

A general’s main job was obviously to lead the army and ensure Athenian victory. However, they also had a major political role: they often acted as ambassadors when visiting other poleis, played a role in determining how Athens would spend its money, and controlled how the city would be fortified in the event of attack. They also had a large say in relations between Athens and other poleis, and they could call a meeting of the Assembly to discuss these issues.

Generals could be punished if they didn’t carry out their job properly. This punishment could include fines, exile or even execution in extreme circumstances. This meant they would be more likely to do a good job because if they didn’t they would be punished for it.

The Generals: Questions 17 - 20

Ostracism

Ostracism was, in theory, a way for Ancient Athenians to protect their democracy and ensure that no man became so powerful as to take all the power for himself. The Assembly was asked yearly whether anyone wanted to call an ostracism vote. Citizens would then write the name of the person they wanted ostracised on a piece of pottery called an ostracon (or get a scribe to write the name, if they were illiterate). These votes would be counted, and the person with the most votes would be ostracised, as long as the total number of votes was at least 6,000. If it was less than 6,000, the vote was void. If someone was ostracised, it meant they would be exiled from Athens for 10 years, after which they could return. Their property wasn’t confiscated, so they could get it back after the 10 years had passed.

A man didn’t have to commit a crime in order to be ostracised, he simply had to be disliked by a large number of people. It was less violent and arguably fairer than simply killing the person, while at the same time allowing the people to get rid of anyone who could pose a threat to democracy. The rich and powerful were often particularly afraid of ostracism, as were prominent political figures: those who were the most well-known also had the most enemies. Pericles, the successful general and unofficial leader of Athens, was mentioned to have been afraid of the possibility of ostracism. It could be argued that the fact that someone could be punished without doing anything wrong, and simply because they were disliked, was unfair and undemocratic.

Ostracism: Questions 21 - 22

Rights and Responsibilities of Athenian Citizens

As members of a democratic society, Athenian citizens had a number of rights. As we have already seen, citizens had the right to attend and speak at the Assembly, to decide on new laws and change old ones, to be a member of the Boule (if at least 30), to be an Archon, to campaign to be a general (if at least 30), to elect a general, to decide to go to war and to decide to surrender, and to be paid for acts of public service such as being a member of the Boule or being an Archon.

They also had certain legal rights. They had the right to be protected by the law, to be equal under the law and to serve as a member of a jury (and get paid for this). Finally, they had one of an Athenian’s most important rights: the right to worship the gods.

However, with these rights came a set of responsibilities. As good citizens, Athenians had to engage in work that benefited the city, and also to train any children they had in useful occupations. If they were between 20 and 60, they had to be prepared to fight in the Athenian army when asked to do so, and provide their own armour and weapons. They were required to obey the gods at all times and take part in worship and religious rituals. This included following the rules of the gods, such as burying the dead properly.

Athenians had to take an active role in politics. For example, they had the responsibility to attend the Assembly as often as possible. There is some evidence to suggest that Athens employed slaves to carry ropes covered with red paint at the time the Assembly met, and to catch anyone who was found in the city and wasn’t attending. These people’s clothes would be stained with red, and they would be found after the Assembly and fined. This may be where our modern phrase "to be roped into something” comes from. This shows just how essential it was for Athenians to attend the Assembly. Furthermore, the word “idiot” originally came from the Ancient Greek “idiotis”, which described someone who didn’t show interest in politics. This shows the negative associations someone who refused to take part in politics would face, and therefore how important it was for Athenian citizens to do so. Athenians had to be in public office when required to do so, for example if they were chosen to be an archon or part of the Boule. They were also required to serve in a jury and make their judgement on the case fairly and impartially.

Liturgies were both a right and a responsibility for rich Athenians. A liturgy was similar to a tax that rich Athenians paid to the city. A rich Athenian would fund something, such as the building of warships or the enactment of a play, that benefitted Athens as a whole. Rich Athenians were often very keen to do this, and sometimes funded even more than they were expected to, because the more money they gave the greater their reputation would grow.

Athenians had to be responsible citizens, and help to improve their city. This involved making sure that only worthy people were elected into public office, and ensure that public money and resources weren’t wasted. On a personal level, the greatest service they could give their country was to have children and raise them to be moral – creating the next generation of Athenian citizens and ensuring that Athens would continue to flourish in the future.

Rights and Responsibilities of Athenian Citizens: Questions 23 - 25

Rights and Responsibilities of Metics, Slaves and Women

Metics had few rights, in Ancient Athens. They had no political rights: they couldn’t be part of the Boule or be an Archon or general, and they couldn’t take part in the Assembly. They also had few legal rights, as they were unable to serve on the jury and they couldn’t take a case to court themselves. If they wanted to do so, another Athenian citizen would have to do it on their behalf. Metics did not have the right to own property.

However, metics still had a number of responsibilities. Metics had to pay taxes, and wealthy metics were expected to contribute funds towards plays and warships. They were also expected to fight in the Athenian army when called to do so.

Essentially, neither slaves or women had any rights. Both were regarded as property: women as the property of their father or husband, and slaves as the property of their owner. Neither could take part in the Assembly, serve in the Boule or as an Archon or general. Neither could be a jury member or bring a case to court. If a woman had been wronged, a male citizen would have to take the case to court on her behalf, and if a slave had been harmed their master could sue the perpetrator for damage to property.

Slaves had a number of responsibilities that were essential to the success of Athens. As previously mentioned, some slaves caught citizens who had tried to avoid attending the Assembly with rope covered in red paint, therefore ensuring that citizens would take part in politics. Slaves also managed the farms and other businesses of their masters while they were away attending the Assembly or being a public official, again ensuring that citizens could participate in democracy. Slaves made Athens richer by working in mines, and made sure the city had enough food and other essentials by farming. They sometimes helped to educate young Athenians if they were given the job of tutor.

An Athenian woman’s most important role was probably to give birth to and raise the next generation of Athenian citizens. They took care of household chores so that male citizens had the time to take part in the farming, business and politics that allowed Athens to flourish. They also had many responsibilities within religion, and were often in charge of burials and other religious rites.

Rights and Responsibilities of Metics, Slaves and Women: Questions 26 - 32

Strengths and Weaknesses of Athenian Democracy

Athenian democracy had a number of strengths. The process was truly democratic, since the average citizen had a real say in what happened in the city. Athens did what the majority of its citizens wanted, and was ruled by the people. Because of this, Athenians were more likely to be patriotic and love their city, since they felt that they, as an individual, played an active role in how Athens developed. By participating in the Assembly, the Boule and so on, all Athenian citizens received a good practical education in politics and diplomacy.

The Assembly could often be easily persuaded by good public speakers, meaning that Athens would be led by only a few charismatic leaders such as Pericles and therefore wouldn’t be as democratic. Furthermore, the Assembly could often make irrational decisions and change its mind, resulting in a very confused and erratic approach to politics. There are many examples in which the Assembly seem to behave frantically and illogically. When 10 generals returned from the disastrous Battle of Arginusae, the Assembly were determined to punish them. Some members of the Assembly were in favour of trying the generals together as a group, however it was illegal to do group trials. The famous philosopher Socrates happened to be the head of the Boule on that day, and he said that he wouldn’t allow anything that went against the constitution. However, eventually the Assembly did vote to try all of the generals together, and they were all executed. Later, the Assembly then came to regret their decision, and chose to try the men who had wanted to try the generals as a group. Another example of the Assembly changing their mind happened after the Mytileneans revolted against the Athenian Empire. They were eventually defeated by Athens and, enraged, the Assembly chose to kill all male Mytileneans, and sell all women and children into slavery. A ship was sent to carry out this order. However, soon after the Athenians realised that sentencing an entire island’s population to either death or slavery may have been a little overkill, and reversed their previous judgement. Another ship was sent to stop the first one and, very dramatically, arrived just as the first ship was about to begin the slaughter.

Because positions such as being a member of the Boule or an Archon were selected by lot rather than elected by vote, this allowed every Athenian citizen, no matter how unpopular, to take a large role in Athenian democracy. This was fair. It prevented bribery, since there were no voters to bribe. It also prevented the rise of a powerful figure who could mislead the people and possibly overthrow democracy, since most political positions of power were selected by lot and were reselected on a yearly basis. Therefore, no one would be able to attain and stay in power for long enough to become a threat to democracy.

On the other hand, choosing these positions by lot meant that it was possible, and even likely, that incompetent people who couldn’t do the job properly would be selected, rather than the people who had the best skills and were the best fit for the job.

The opposite argument can be made for generals, who were elected by vote. This meant that competent people who could do their job well were more likely to be general. It may have been essential that the protection of the city was in competent hands. On the other hand, this meant that most ordinary Athenians were unlikely to be able to become generals, and couldn’t therefore fully participate in democracy. Election systems were open to bribes, which made the system unfair and gave the rich an advantage over the poor. Finally, the election system allowed certain individuals to achieve a great amount of power over the people, like Pericles did when he became a general. This could be regarded as undemocratic and made it possible that these people could use their power to overthrow democracy. Because generals could get elected again and again with no limit, this also allowed individuals to attain a large amount of power for a long time.

Generals could be severely punished if they didn’t perform their jobs well, sometimes even by execution. This made generals more likely to do their job well and put a lot of effort into it since they were afraid of what would happen if they didn’t. On the other hand, the fear of punishment could lead generals to be more cautious than they should be in battle, and this could be bad for Athens. For example, when a general called Nicias was called back from an unsuccessful campaign against Sicily in order to defend an attack on Athens he refused, because he didn’t want to be punished by the Athenians because he had failed to fight well in Sicily.

Because citizens were paid for being an Archon or part of the Boule, this allowed everyone to take part in democracy no matter how rich they were. The money was compensation for the money lost by taking part in political life, meaning that even the poorest could afford to participate. On the other hand, generals weren’t paid for service, meaning only the richest could afford to participate.

Posts such as being an Archon could only be achieved once in a lifetime, which curbed the power of any one individual and kept democracy safe. However, because important bodies like the Boule changed every year, this made it hard to maintain consistency in decision making and public policy, since the new Boule could reverse the decisions of the old Boule if they disagreed. This often resulted in a very disordered and erratic approach to policy.

Some people, such as the Ancient Greek comedian Aristophanes, argued that paying people for public service such as being part of the Boule made those people corrupt, because it meant they were only doing it for the money and wouldn’t do as good a job.

The Assembly was always held in Athens. This suited people who lived in the city, but for the farmers who lived in the surrounding countryside it could take them days to reach Athens. During this time they wouldn’t be able to farm or take care of affairs at home, meaning that few people living in the countryside could participate in politics. This was unfair because it gave certain people more access to democracy than others.

Ostracism was, on the one hand, a good way to protect democracy from anyone who may seem to want to overthrow it. On the other hand, it could be seen as unfair and undemocratic that people could be expelled from Athens without even doing anything wrong.

It must be remembered that while Athenian citizens did have good access to democracy, the vast majority of people living in Athens (including metics, slaves and women) had no access to democracy, and often weren’t even treated as human beings. This is clearly unfair and undemocratic. Furthermore, the only way that Athenian democracy could work was through the use of slaves: slaves carried on the work of their masters while their masters were participating in politics.

Strengths and Weaknesses: Questions 33 - 37